Sudan Civil War: History & Implications [6 Root Causes]

Sudan, a nation known for its rich cultural heritage and historical importance, has been deeply affected by decades of internal strife. Marked as one of Africa’s poorest countries, Sudan’s landscape has been shaped by a series of brutal civil wars fueled by ethnic, religious, and economic divisions. This blog unpacks the complex origins and phases of the Sudan Civil War; from the early struggles rooted in colonial legacies and ethnic diversity, through the First and Second Civil Wars, to the landmark 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement that led to the birth of South Sudan in 2011. It also highlights the recent resurgence of conflict in 2023, with devastating humanitarian consequences including mass displacement, widespread famine, and ongoing violence, especially in the Darfur region.

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The First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972)

The origins of Sudan’s conflict trace back even before the country’s formal independence in 1956. In 1955, the southern regions of Sudan erupted in rebellion against the central government seated in Khartoum, protesting decades of political and economic marginalization. The predominantly non-Arab, Christian and animist communities in the south felt systematically excluded from political power and deprived of equitable development opportunities compared to the Arab-Muslim north.

This uprising triggered the First Sudanese Civil War, a prolonged and devastating conflict that lasted 17 years, profoundly shaping Sudan’s social and political landscape. By 1972, the conflict reached a turning point with the signing of the historic Addis Ababa Agreement, which granted the southern region a measure of autonomy and self-governance, temporarily halting hostilities.

Context and Impact

– The war displaced an estimated 500,000 people and resulted in thousands of casualties during its course, with entire communities uprooted and enduring significant hardship.

– The Addis Ababa Agreement promised local self-rule for Southern Sudan, creating the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region, and was celebrated as a beacon of peace.

– However, despite the agreement’s initial success, unresolved issues regarding resource sharing, political power, and cultural recognition contributed to tensions that reignited in the subsequent civil war phases.

The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005)

Despite a temporary peace from the First Sudanese Civil War, hostilities flared anew in 1983 when President Gaafar Nimeiry revoked the autonomy previously granted to Southern Sudan and imposed Islamic Sharia law across the entire country. This act reignited deep-seated tensions and led to the Second Sudanese Civil War, one of the most prolonged and devastating conflicts in African history.

Under the leadership of John Garang, the Sudan People’s Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) spearheaded the southern resistance, fighting for self-determination, political inclusion, and an end to systematic discrimination.

The Scope and Human Impact of the War

This conflict endured for nearly 22 years and resulted in immense human suffering:

– Over 2 million lives were lost due to violence, famine, and disease connected to the war, marking it as one of the deadliest civil wars worldwide.

– The war generated approximately 4 million internally displaced persons and refugees, making Southern Sudan one of the world’s largest displacement crises at the time.

1. Religious and Ethnic Divides: The cultural and political friction between the Arab-Muslim north and the Christian and animist south intensified over decades, reigniting hostilities.

2. Economic Disparities: Despite the South’s rich resources, especially oil, it remained marginalized and underserved in national development efforts.

3. Enforcement of Sharia Law: The imposition of Islamic legal frameworks alienated the non-Muslim southern populations, reinforcing a desire for autonomy.

4. Political Exclusion: Repeated political marginalization and lack of representation fostered resentment among southern communities.

5. Militant Resistance: The formation and actions of the SPLA/M were a direct response to these accumulated grievances, escalating armed conflict.

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005) and the Birth of South Sudan (2011)

The signing of the landmark Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on January 9, 2005, marked a pivotal turning point in Sudan’s turbulent history. This historic accord, negotiated between the Sudanese government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), officially ended over two decades of devastating civil war. Facilitated by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) alongside international partners including the United States, United Kingdom, Norway, and Italy, the CPA set the framework for peace, power sharing, and eventual self-determination for Southern Sudan.

The agreement provided the South with six years of autonomy during which it would govern its own affairs and paved the way for a referendum to decide the future status of the region. Crucially, the CPA established mechanisms for security arrangements that mandated a permanent ceasefire and integration of armed forces, as well as protocols for sharing wealth—particularly revenue from Sudan’s oil reserves.

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement’s provisions also safeguarded the coexistence of Islamic law in the north, while granting Southern Sudan the right to determine the application of the law through its own elected assembly. Key regions such as Southern Kordofan, Blue Nile, and Abyei were included in the peace framework, recognizing the complex ethnic and political composition of the country.

The 2011 Referendum and Independence

In January 2011, Southern Sudan held a referendum where an overwhelming 99% of voters chose independence, culminating in the birth of the Republic of South Sudan on July 9, 2011. This peaceful political transition marked a new chapter, closing a painful era of civil conflict but opening challenges of nation-building and post-conflict reconciliation.